Merge pull request #2148 from nspcc-dev/microopt-vm

Another round of VM microoptimizations

pkg/core/interop/contract/call.go

@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ func Call(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	}
 	hasReturn := md.ReturnType != smartcontract.VoidType
 	if !hasReturn {
-		ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(stackitem.Null{})
+		ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.Null{})
 	}
 	return callInternal(ic, cs, method, fs, hasReturn, args)
 }
@@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ func callExFromNative(ic *interop.Context, caller util.Uint160, cs *state.Contra
 	ic.VM.LoadScriptWithCallingHash(caller, cs.NEF.Script, cs.Hash, ic.VM.Context().GetCallFlags()&f, hasReturn, uint16(len(args)))
 	ic.VM.Context().NEF = &cs.NEF
 	for i := len(args) - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
-		ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(args[i])
+		ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(args[i])
 	}
 	// use Jump not Call here because context was loaded in LoadScript above.
 	ic.VM.Jump(ic.VM.Context(), md.Offset)

pkg/core/interop/crypto/ecdsa.go

@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/crypto/hash"
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/crypto/keys"
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/vm"
+	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/vm/stackitem"
 )
 
 // ECDSASecp256r1CheckMultisig checks multiple ECDSA signatures at once using
@@ -32,7 +33,7 @@ func ECDSASecp256r1CheckMultisig(ic *interop.Context) error {
 		return errors.New("more signatures than there are keys")
 	}
 	sigok := vm.CheckMultisigPar(ic.VM, elliptic.P256(), hash.NetSha256(ic.Network, ic.Container).BytesBE(), pkeys, sigs)
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(sigok)
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.Bool(sigok))
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -45,6 +46,6 @@ func ECDSASecp256r1CheckSig(ic *interop.Context) error {
 		return err
 	}
 	res := pkey.VerifyHashable(signature, ic.Network, ic.Container)
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(res)
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.Bool(res))
 	return nil
 }

pkg/core/interop/iterator/interop.go

@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ type iterator interface {
 func Next(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	iop := ic.VM.Estack().Pop().Interop()
 	arr := iop.Value().(iterator)
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(arr.Next())
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.Bool(arr.Next()))
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ func Next(ic *interop.Context) error {
 func Value(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	iop := ic.VM.Estack().Pop().Interop()
 	arr := iop.Value().(iterator)
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(arr.Value())
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(arr.Value())
 
 	return nil
 }

pkg/core/interop/runtime/engine.go

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ package runtime
 import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"math/big"
 
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/core/interop"
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/core/state"
@@ -28,7 +29,7 @@ func GetExecutingScriptHash(ic *interop.Context) error {
 // one native to another, no operations are performed on invocation stack.
 func GetCallingScriptHash(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	h := ic.VM.GetCallingScriptHash()
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(h.BytesBE())
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewByteArray(h.BytesBE()))
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -39,13 +40,13 @@ func GetEntryScriptHash(ic *interop.Context) error {
 
 // Platform returns the name of the platform.
 func Platform(ic *interop.Context) error {
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal([]byte("NEO"))
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewByteArray([]byte("NEO")))
 	return nil
 }
 
 // GetTrigger returns the script trigger.
 func GetTrigger(ic *interop.Context) error {
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(byte(ic.Trigger))
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(ic.Trigger))))
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -97,7 +98,7 @@ func Log(ic *interop.Context) error {
 // GetTime returns timestamp of the block being verified, or the latest
 // one in the blockchain if no block is given to Context.
 func GetTime(ic *interop.Context) error {
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(ic.Block.Timestamp)
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).SetUint64(ic.Block.Timestamp)))
 	return nil
 }
 

pkg/core/interop/runtime/util.go

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ package runtime
 import (
 	"encoding/binary"
 	"errors"
+	"math/big"
 
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/core/interop"
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/core/state"
@@ -16,9 +17,9 @@ import (
 // GasLeft returns remaining amount of GAS.
 func GasLeft(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	if ic.VM.GasLimit == -1 {
-		ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(ic.VM.GasLimit)
+		ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(ic.VM.GasLimit)))
 	} else {
-		ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(ic.VM.GasLimit - ic.VM.GasConsumed())
+		ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(ic.VM.GasLimit - ic.VM.GasConsumed())))
 	}
 	return nil
 }
@@ -55,7 +56,7 @@ func GetNotifications(ic *interop.Context) error {
 		})
 		arr.Append(ev)
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(arr)
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(arr)
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -67,21 +68,21 @@ func GetInvocationCounter(ic *interop.Context) error {
 		count = 1
 		ic.VM.Invocations[currentScriptHash] = count
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(count)
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(count))))
 	return nil
 }
 
 // GetNetwork returns chain network number.
 func GetNetwork(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	m := ic.Chain.GetConfig().Magic
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(uint32(m))
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(m))))
 	return nil
 }
 
 // GetRandom returns pseudo-random number which depends on block nonce and transaction hash.
 func GetRandom(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	res := murmur128(ic.NonceData[:], ic.Network)
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(bigint.FromBytesUnsigned(res))
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(bigint.FromBytesUnsigned(res)))
 	copy(ic.NonceData[:], res)
 	return nil
 }

pkg/core/interop/runtime/witness.go

@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/smartcontract/callflag"
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/util"
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/vm"
+	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/vm/stackitem"
 )
 
 // CheckHashedWitness checks given hash against current list of script hashes
@@ -97,6 +98,6 @@ func CheckWitness(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("failed to check witness: %w", err)
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(res)
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.Bool(res))
 	return nil
 }

pkg/core/interop_system.go

@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"math"
+	"math/big"
 	"sort"
 
 	"github.com/nspcc-dev/neo-go/pkg/core/block"
@@ -44,7 +45,7 @@ func engineGetScriptContainer(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	default:
 		return errors.New("unknown script container")
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(item)
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(item)
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -72,9 +73,9 @@ func storageGet(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	key := ic.VM.Estack().Pop().Bytes()
 	si := ic.DAO.GetStorageItem(stc.ID, key)
 	if si != nil {
-		ic.VM.Estack().PushVal([]byte(si))
+		ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewByteArray([]byte(si)))
 	} else {
-		ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(stackitem.Null{})
+		ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.Null{})
 	}
 	return nil
 }
@@ -100,7 +101,7 @@ func storageGetContextInternal(ic *interop.Context, isReadOnly bool) error {
 		ID:       contract.ID,
 		ReadOnly: isReadOnly,
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(stackitem.NewInterop(sc))
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewInterop(sc))
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -157,7 +158,7 @@ func storageContextAsReadOnly(ic *interop.Context) error {
 		}
 		stc = stx
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(stackitem.NewInterop(stc))
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewInterop(stc))
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -210,7 +211,7 @@ func storageFind(ic *interop.Context) error {
 
 	filteredMap := stackitem.NewMapWithValue(arr)
 	item := istorage.NewIterator(filteredMap, len(prefix), opts)
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(stackitem.NewInterop(item))
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewInterop(item))
 
 	return nil
 }
@@ -236,7 +237,7 @@ func contractCreateMultisigAccount(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(hash.Hash160(script).BytesBE())
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewByteArray(hash.Hash160(script).BytesBE()))
 	return nil
 }
 
@@ -247,12 +248,12 @@ func contractCreateStandardAccount(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(p.GetScriptHash().BytesBE())
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewByteArray(p.GetScriptHash().BytesBE()))
 	return nil
 }
 
 // contractGetCallFlags returns current context calling flags.
 func contractGetCallFlags(ic *interop.Context) error {
-	ic.VM.Estack().PushVal(ic.VM.Context().GetCallFlags())
+	ic.VM.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(ic.VM.Context().GetCallFlags()))))
 	return nil
 }

pkg/core/native/interop.go

@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ func Call(ic *interop.Context) error {
 	}
 	result := m.Func(ic, args)
 	if m.MD.ReturnType != smartcontract.VoidType {
-		ctx.Estack().PushVal(result)
+		ctx.Estack().PushItem(result)
 	}
 	return nil
 }

pkg/vm/context.go

@@ -80,7 +80,6 @@ func NewContext(b []byte) *Context {
 func NewContextWithParams(b []byte, pcount int, rvcount int, pos int) *Context {
 	return &Context{
 		prog:       b,
-		breakPoints: []int{},
 		ParamCount: pcount,
 		RetCount:   rvcount,
 		nextip:     pos,
@@ -287,8 +286,7 @@ func (v *VM) getContextScriptHash(n int) util.Uint160 {
 		return util.Uint160{}
 	}
 	element := istack.Peek(n)
-	ctxIface := element.Value()
+	ctx := element.value.(*Context)
-	ctx := ctxIface.(*Context)
 	return ctx.ScriptHash()
 }
 
@@ -296,6 +294,6 @@ func (v *VM) getContextScriptHash(n int) util.Uint160 {
 // invocation stack element number n.
 func (v *VM) PushContextScriptHash(n int) error {
 	h := v.getContextScriptHash(n)
-	v.Estack().PushVal(h.BytesBE())
+	v.Estack().PushItem(stackitem.NewByteArray(h.BytesBE()))
 	return nil
 }

pkg/vm/stack.go

@@ -170,6 +170,11 @@ func (s *Stack) Push(e Element) {
 	s.refs.Add(e.value)
 }
 
+// PushItem pushed an Item to the stack.
+func (s *Stack) PushItem(i stackitem.Item) {
+	s.Push(Element{i})
+}
+
 // PushVal pushes the given value on the stack. It will infer the
 // underlying Item to its corresponding type.
 func (s *Stack) PushVal(v interface{}) {

pkg/vm/vm.go

@@ -286,7 +286,7 @@ func (v *VM) LoadScriptWithFlags(b []byte, f callflag.CallFlag) {
 	ctx.callFlag = f
 	ctx.static = newSlot(&v.refs)
 	ctx.callingScriptHash = v.GetCurrentScriptHash()
-	v.istack.PushVal(ctx)
+	v.istack.PushItem(ctx)
 }
 
 // LoadScriptWithHash if similar to the LoadScriptWithFlags method, but it also loads
@@ -322,7 +322,7 @@ func (v *VM) Context() *Context {
 	if v.istack.Len() == 0 {
 		return nil
 	}
-	return v.istack.Peek(0).Value().(*Context)
+	return v.istack.Peek(0).value.(*Context)
 }
 
 // PopResult is used to pop the first item of the evaluation stack. This allows
@@ -360,6 +360,8 @@ func (v *VM) Ready() bool {
 
 // Run starts the execution of the loaded program.
 func (v *VM) Run() error {
+	var ctx *Context
+
 	if !v.Ready() {
 		v.state = FaultState
 		return errors.New("no program loaded")
@@ -372,6 +374,7 @@ func (v *VM) Run() error {
 	}
 	// HaltState (the default) or BreakState are safe to continue.
 	v.state = NoneState
+	ctx = v.Context()
 	for {
 		switch {
 		case v.state.HasFlag(FaultState):
@@ -382,7 +385,7 @@ func (v *VM) Run() error {
 			// Normal exit from this loop.
 			return nil
 		case v.state == NoneState:
-			if err := v.Step(); err != nil {
+			if err := v.step(ctx); err != nil {
 				return err
 			}
 		default:
@@ -390,7 +393,7 @@ func (v *VM) Run() error {
 			return errors.New("unknown state")
 		}
 		// check for breakpoint before executing the next instruction
-		ctx := v.Context()
+		ctx = v.Context()
 		if ctx != nil && ctx.atBreakPoint() {
 			v.state = BreakState
 		}
@@ -400,6 +403,11 @@ func (v *VM) Run() error {
 // Step 1 instruction in the program.
 func (v *VM) Step() error {
 	ctx := v.Context()
+	return v.step(ctx)
+}
+
+// step executes one instruction in given context.
+func (v *VM) step(ctx *Context) error {
 	op, param, err := ctx.Next()
 	if err != nil {
 		v.state = FaultState
@@ -532,7 +540,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 	}
 
 	if op <= opcode.PUSHINT256 {
-		v.estack.PushVal(bigint.FromBytes(parameter))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(bigint.FromBytes(parameter)))
 		return
 	}
 
@@ -543,26 +551,26 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		opcode.PUSH12, opcode.PUSH13, opcode.PUSH14, opcode.PUSH15,
 		opcode.PUSH16:
 		val := int(op) - int(opcode.PUSH0)
-		v.estack.PushVal(val)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(val))))
 
 	case opcode.PUSHDATA1, opcode.PUSHDATA2, opcode.PUSHDATA4:
-		v.estack.PushVal(parameter)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewByteArray(parameter))
 
 	case opcode.PUSHA:
 		n := getJumpOffset(ctx, parameter)
 		ptr := stackitem.NewPointerWithHash(n, ctx.prog, ctx.ScriptHash())
-		v.estack.PushVal(ptr)
+		v.estack.PushItem(ptr)
 
 	case opcode.PUSHNULL:
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.Null{})
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Null{})
 
 	case opcode.ISNULL:
 		_, ok := v.estack.Pop().value.(stackitem.Null)
-		v.estack.PushVal(ok)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(ok))
 
 	case opcode.ISTYPE:
 		res := v.estack.Pop().Item()
-		v.estack.PushVal(res.Type() == stackitem.Type(parameter[0]))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(res.Type() == stackitem.Type(parameter[0])))
 
 	case opcode.CONVERT:
 		typ := stackitem.Type(parameter[0])
@@ -571,7 +579,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		if err != nil {
 			panic(err)
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(result)
+		v.estack.PushItem(result)
 
 	case opcode.INITSSLOT:
 		if parameter[0] == 0 {
@@ -599,11 +607,11 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 
 	case opcode.LDSFLD0, opcode.LDSFLD1, opcode.LDSFLD2, opcode.LDSFLD3, opcode.LDSFLD4, opcode.LDSFLD5, opcode.LDSFLD6:
 		item := ctx.static.Get(int(op - opcode.LDSFLD0))
-		v.estack.PushVal(item)
+		v.estack.PushItem(item)
 
 	case opcode.LDSFLD:
 		item := ctx.static.Get(int(parameter[0]))
-		v.estack.PushVal(item)
+		v.estack.PushItem(item)
 
 	case opcode.STSFLD0, opcode.STSFLD1, opcode.STSFLD2, opcode.STSFLD3, opcode.STSFLD4, opcode.STSFLD5, opcode.STSFLD6:
 		item := v.estack.Pop().Item()
@@ -615,11 +623,11 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 
 	case opcode.LDLOC0, opcode.LDLOC1, opcode.LDLOC2, opcode.LDLOC3, opcode.LDLOC4, opcode.LDLOC5, opcode.LDLOC6:
 		item := ctx.local.Get(int(op - opcode.LDLOC0))
-		v.estack.PushVal(item)
+		v.estack.PushItem(item)
 
 	case opcode.LDLOC:
 		item := ctx.local.Get(int(parameter[0]))
-		v.estack.PushVal(item)
+		v.estack.PushItem(item)
 
 	case opcode.STLOC0, opcode.STLOC1, opcode.STLOC2, opcode.STLOC3, opcode.STLOC4, opcode.STLOC5, opcode.STLOC6:
 		item := v.estack.Pop().Item()
@@ -631,11 +639,11 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 
 	case opcode.LDARG0, opcode.LDARG1, opcode.LDARG2, opcode.LDARG3, opcode.LDARG4, opcode.LDARG5, opcode.LDARG6:
 		item := ctx.arguments.Get(int(op - opcode.LDARG0))
-		v.estack.PushVal(item)
+		v.estack.PushItem(item)
 
 	case opcode.LDARG:
 		item := ctx.arguments.Get(int(parameter[0]))
-		v.estack.PushVal(item)
+		v.estack.PushItem(item)
 
 	case opcode.STARG0, opcode.STARG1, opcode.STARG2, opcode.STARG3, opcode.STARG4, opcode.STARG5, opcode.STARG6:
 		item := v.estack.Pop().Item()
@@ -650,7 +658,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		if n < 0 || n > stackitem.MaxSize {
 			panic("invalid size")
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.NewBuffer(make([]byte, n)))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBuffer(make([]byte, n)))
 
 	case opcode.MEMCPY:
 		n := toInt(v.estack.Pop().BigInt())
@@ -685,7 +693,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		ab := make([]byte, l)
 		copy(ab, a)
 		copy(ab[len(a):], b)
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.NewBuffer(ab))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBuffer(ab))
 
 	case opcode.SUBSTR:
 		l := int(v.estack.Pop().BigInt().Int64())
@@ -703,7 +711,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		}
 		res := make([]byte, l)
 		copy(res, s[o:last])
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.NewBuffer(res))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBuffer(res))
 
 	case opcode.LEFT:
 		l := int(v.estack.Pop().BigInt().Int64())
@@ -716,7 +724,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		}
 		res := make([]byte, l)
 		copy(res, s[:l])
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.NewBuffer(res))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBuffer(res))
 
 	case opcode.RIGHT:
 		l := int(v.estack.Pop().BigInt().Int64())
@@ -726,10 +734,10 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		s := v.estack.Pop().Bytes()
 		res := make([]byte, l)
 		copy(res, s[len(s)-l:])
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.NewBuffer(res))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBuffer(res))
 
 	case opcode.DEPTH:
-		v.estack.PushVal(v.estack.Len())
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(v.estack.Len()))))
 
 	case opcode.DROP:
 		if v.estack.Len() < 1 {
@@ -818,22 +826,22 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 	// Bit operations.
 	case opcode.INVERT:
 		i := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Not(i))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Not(i)))
 
 	case opcode.AND:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).And(b, a))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).And(b, a)))
 
 	case opcode.OR:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Or(b, a))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Or(b, a)))
 
 	case opcode.XOR:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Xor(b, a))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Xor(b, a)))
 
 	case opcode.EQUAL, opcode.NOTEQUAL:
 		if v.estack.Len() < 2 {
@@ -841,63 +849,64 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		}
 		b := v.estack.Pop()
 		a := v.estack.Pop()
-		v.estack.PushVal(a.value.Equals(b.value) == (op == opcode.EQUAL))
+		res := stackitem.Bool(a.value.Equals(b.value) == (op == opcode.EQUAL))
+		v.estack.PushItem(res)
 
 	// Numeric operations.
 	case opcode.SIGN:
 		x := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(x.Sign())
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(x.Sign()))))
 
 	case opcode.ABS:
 		x := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Abs(x))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Abs(x)))
 
 	case opcode.NEGATE:
 		x := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Neg(x))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Neg(x)))
 
 	case opcode.INC:
 		x := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := new(big.Int).Add(x, big.NewInt(1))
-		v.estack.PushVal(a)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(a))
 
 	case opcode.DEC:
 		x := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := new(big.Int).Sub(x, big.NewInt(1))
-		v.estack.PushVal(a)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(a))
 
 	case opcode.ADD:
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 
 		c := new(big.Int).Add(a, b)
-		v.estack.PushVal(c)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(c))
 
 	case opcode.SUB:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 
 		c := new(big.Int).Sub(a, b)
-		v.estack.PushVal(c)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(c))
 
 	case opcode.MUL:
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 
 		c := new(big.Int).Mul(a, b)
-		v.estack.PushVal(c)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(c))
 
 	case opcode.DIV:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Quo(a, b))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Quo(a, b)))
 
 	case opcode.MOD:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Rem(a, b))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Rem(a, b)))
 
 	case opcode.POW:
 		exp := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
@@ -905,7 +914,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		if ei := exp.Uint64(); !exp.IsUint64() || ei > maxSHLArg {
 			panic("invalid exponent")
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Exp(a, exp, nil))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Exp(a, exp, nil)))
 
 	case opcode.SQRT:
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
@@ -913,7 +922,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 			panic("negative value")
 		}
 
-		v.estack.PushVal(new(big.Int).Sqrt(a))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(new(big.Int).Sqrt(a)))
 
 	case opcode.SHL, opcode.SHR:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt().Int64()
@@ -931,35 +940,35 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 			item.Rsh(a, uint(b))
 		}
 
-		v.estack.PushVal(&item)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(&item))
 
 	case opcode.NOT:
 		x := v.estack.Pop().Bool()
-		v.estack.PushVal(!x)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(!x))
 
 	case opcode.BOOLAND:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().Bool()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().Bool()
-		v.estack.PushVal(a && b)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(a && b))
 
 	case opcode.BOOLOR:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().Bool()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().Bool()
-		v.estack.PushVal(a || b)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(a || b))
 
 	case opcode.NZ:
 		x := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(x.Sign() != 0)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(x.Sign() != 0))
 
 	case opcode.NUMEQUAL:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(a.Cmp(b) == 0)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(a.Cmp(b) == 0))
 
 	case opcode.NUMNOTEQUAL:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(a.Cmp(b) != 0)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(a.Cmp(b) != 0))
 
 	case opcode.LT, opcode.LE, opcode.GT, opcode.GE:
 		eb := v.estack.Pop()
@@ -981,7 +990,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 				res = cmp >= 0
 			}
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(res)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(res))
 
 	case opcode.MIN:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
@@ -990,7 +999,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		if a.Cmp(b) == 1 {
 			val = b
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(val)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(val))
 
 	case opcode.MAX:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
@@ -999,17 +1008,17 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		if a.Cmp(b) == -1 {
 			val = b
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(val)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(val))
 
 	case opcode.WITHIN:
 		b := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		a := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
 		x := v.estack.Pop().BigInt()
-		v.estack.PushVal(a.Cmp(x) <= 0 && x.Cmp(b) == -1)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(a.Cmp(x) <= 0 && x.Cmp(b) == -1))
 
 	// Object operations
 	case opcode.NEWARRAY0:
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.NewArray([]stackitem.Item{}))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewArray([]stackitem.Item{}))
 
 	case opcode.NEWARRAY, opcode.NEWARRAYT, opcode.NEWSTRUCT:
 		n := toInt(v.estack.Pop().BigInt())
@@ -1027,10 +1036,10 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		} else {
 			res = stackitem.NewArray(items)
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(res)
+		v.estack.PushItem(res)
 
 	case opcode.NEWSTRUCT0:
-		v.estack.PushVal(stackitem.NewStruct([]stackitem.Item{}))
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewStruct([]stackitem.Item{}))
 
 	case opcode.APPEND:
 		itemElem := v.estack.Pop()
@@ -1060,15 +1069,15 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 			items[i] = v.estack.Pop().value
 		}
 
-		v.estack.PushVal(items)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewArray(items))
 
 	case opcode.UNPACK:
 		a := v.estack.Pop().Array()
 		l := len(a)
 		for i := l - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
-			v.estack.PushVal(a[i])
+			v.estack.PushItem(a[i])
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(l)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(l))))
 
 	case opcode.PICKITEM:
 		key := v.estack.Pop()
@@ -1085,20 +1094,20 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 				panic("PICKITEM: invalid index")
 			}
 			item := arr[index].Dup()
-			v.estack.PushVal(item)
+			v.estack.PushItem(item)
 		case *stackitem.Map:
 			index := t.Index(key.Item())
 			if index < 0 {
 				panic("invalid key")
 			}
-			v.estack.Push(Element{value: t.Value().([]stackitem.MapElement)[index].Value.Dup()})
+			v.estack.PushItem(t.Value().([]stackitem.MapElement)[index].Value.Dup())
 		default:
 			arr := obj.Bytes()
 			if index < 0 || index >= len(arr) {
 				panic("PICKITEM: invalid index")
 			}
 			item := arr[index]
-			v.estack.PushVal(int(item))
+			v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(item))))
 		}
 
 	case opcode.SETITEM:
@@ -1223,20 +1232,22 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 			item.Remove(index)
 		}
 		v.refs.Remove(elem)
-		v.estack.PushVal(elem)
+		v.estack.PushItem(elem)
 
 	case opcode.SIZE:
 		elem := v.estack.Pop()
+		var res int
 		// Cause there is no native (byte) item type here, hence we need to check
 		// the type of the item for array size operations.
 		switch t := elem.Value().(type) {
 		case []stackitem.Item:
-			v.estack.PushVal(len(t))
+			res = len(t)
 		case []stackitem.MapElement:
-			v.estack.PushVal(len(t))
+			res = len(t)
 		default:
-			v.estack.PushVal(len(elem.Bytes()))
+			res = len(elem.Bytes())
 		}
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewBigInteger(big.NewInt(int64(res))))
 
 	case opcode.JMP, opcode.JMPL, opcode.JMPIF, opcode.JMPIFL, opcode.JMPIFNOT, opcode.JMPIFNOTL,
 		opcode.JMPEQ, opcode.JMPEQL, opcode.JMPNE, opcode.JMPNEL,
@@ -1285,7 +1296,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		}
 
 	case opcode.RET:
-		oldCtx := v.istack.Pop().Value().(*Context)
+		oldCtx := v.istack.Pop().value.(*Context)
 		oldEstack := v.estack
 
 		v.unloadContext(oldCtx)
@@ -1309,7 +1320,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		}
 
 	case opcode.NEWMAP:
-		v.estack.Push(Element{value: stackitem.NewMap()})
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewMap())
 
 	case opcode.KEYS:
 		if v.estack.Len() == 0 {
@@ -1326,7 +1337,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		for k := range m.Value().([]stackitem.MapElement) {
 			arr = append(arr, m.Value().([]stackitem.MapElement)[k].Key.Dup())
 		}
-		v.estack.PushVal(arr)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewArray(arr))
 
 	case opcode.VALUES:
 		if v.estack.Len() == 0 {
@@ -1351,7 +1362,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 			panic("not a Map, Array or Struct")
 		}
 
-		v.estack.PushVal(arr)
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.NewArray(arr))
 
 	case opcode.HASKEY:
 		if v.estack.Len() < 2 {
@@ -1361,24 +1372,26 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 		validateMapKey(key)
 
 		c := v.estack.Pop()
+		var res bool
 		switch t := c.value.(type) {
 		case *stackitem.Array, *stackitem.Struct:
 			index := key.BigInt().Int64()
 			if index < 0 {
 				panic("negative index")
 			}
-			v.estack.PushVal(index < int64(len(c.Array())))
+			res = index < int64(len(c.Array()))
 		case *stackitem.Map:
-			v.estack.PushVal(t.Has(key.Item()))
+			res = t.Has(key.Item())
 		case *stackitem.Buffer:
 			index := key.BigInt().Int64()
 			if index < 0 {
 				panic("negative index")
 			}
-			v.estack.PushVal(index < int64(t.Len()))
+			res = index < int64(t.Len())
 		default:
 			panic("wrong collection type")
 		}
+		v.estack.PushItem(stackitem.Bool(res))
 
 	case opcode.NOP:
 		// unlucky ^^
@@ -1409,7 +1422,7 @@ func (v *VM) execute(ctx *Context, op opcode.Opcode, parameter []byte) (err erro
 			fOffset = -1
 		}
 		eCtx := newExceptionHandlingContext(cOffset, fOffset)
-		ctx.tryStack.PushVal(eCtx)
+		ctx.tryStack.PushItem(eCtx)
 
 	case opcode.ENDTRY, opcode.ENDTRYL:
 		eCtx := ctx.tryStack.Peek(0).Value().(*exceptionHandlingContext)
@@ -1512,7 +1525,7 @@ func (v *VM) call(ctx *Context, offset int) {
 	newCtx.arguments = nil
 	initStack(&newCtx.tryStack, "exception", nil)
 	newCtx.NEF = ctx.NEF
-	v.istack.PushVal(newCtx)
+	v.istack.PushItem(newCtx)
 	v.Jump(newCtx, offset)
 }
 
@@ -1552,7 +1565,7 @@ func calcJumpOffset(ctx *Context, parameter []byte) (int, int, error) {
 func (v *VM) handleException() {
 	for pop := 0; pop < v.istack.Len(); pop++ {
 		ictxv := v.istack.Peek(pop)
-		ictx := ictxv.Value().(*Context)
+		ictx := ictxv.value.(*Context)
 		for j := 0; j < ictx.tryStack.Len(); j++ {
 			e := ictx.tryStack.Peek(j)
 			ectx := e.Value().(*exceptionHandlingContext)
@@ -1562,12 +1575,12 @@ func (v *VM) handleException() {
 				continue
 			}
 			for i := 0; i < pop; i++ {
-				ctx := v.istack.Pop().Value().(*Context)
+				ctx := v.istack.Pop().value.(*Context)
 				v.unloadContext(ctx)
 			}
 			if ectx.State == eTry && ectx.HasCatch() {
 				ectx.State = eCatch
-				v.estack.PushVal(v.uncaughtException)
+				v.estack.PushItem(v.uncaughtException)
 				v.uncaughtException = nil
 				v.Jump(ictx, ectx.CatchOffset)
 			} else {